Methods, systems, and compositions for studying solvent accessibility and three-dimensional structure of biological molecules

ABSTRACT

This disclosure provides methods, systems, and compositions of matter for studying solvent accessibility and three-dimensional structure of biological molecules. A plasma can be used to generate marker radicals, which can interact with a biological molecule and mark the solvent-accessible portions of the biological molecule.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is related to, claims priority to, and incorporatesherein by reference in its entirety U.S. Provisional Patent ApplicationNo. 62/338,699, filed May 19, 2016.

STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY FUNDED RESEARCH

This invention was made with government support under MCB1410164 andCBET1066231 awarded by the National Science Foundation andDE-FG02-88ER13938 awarded by the US Department of Energy. The governmenthas certain rights in the invention.

BACKGROUND

Existing methods of interrogating a biological system can derivesignificant amounts of information. Examples of existing methods includemethods for determining an organism's genome, exome, transcriptome,proteome, and metabolome.

The genome can be solved in order to determine an organism's geneticmaterial, typically in the form of DNA (though RNA serves a similarpurpose in a subset of organisms). The genome can include all of thegenes stored within the genetic material. The exome is a part of thegenome that is formed by exons.

The transcriptome refers to the level of expression of mRNA for a cell,a group of cells, or an entire organism. The transcriptome contains someinformation regarding the environment for a particular cell line,because the mRNA expression products can vary based on environmentalconditions.

The proteome refers to the populations of proteins expressed in a cell,a group of cells, or an entire organism. The proteome also containsinformation regarding the environment for a particular cell line,because protein expression can vary based on environmental conditions.

The metabolome refers to the population of small-molecules present in abiological sample. The metabolome contains additional and differentinformation regarding the environment for a particular cell line,because small-molecule generation and consumption can vary based onenvironmental conditions.

Beyond all of the above lies an area that has yet to be effectively orefficiently probed, namely the “conformatiome”, which refers to theconformational information for any or all of the biological molecules ina given biological sample. The conformatiome ideally providesconformational information regarding various biological molecules intheir native and unaltered conformational state.

Current methods that claim to probe conformational structuralinformation suffer from one or more of the following problems. First,some methods require crystallization of a sample (such as x-raycrystallography) or other manipulation that does not present thebiological molecule in its native state. Second, some methods requirethe addition of non-native chemical species to a sample in order toprovide species for tagging a sample. One example is fast photochemicaloxidation of proteins (FPOP), which requires the addition of hydrogenperoxide to oxidize biological molecules. The addition of hydrogenperoxide may alter the conformational state of the biological moleculesbeing studied. Third, some methods require immensely expensiveequipment. For example, the aforementioned FPOP requires use of anexcimer laser, which is an expensive instrument. Other methods, such assynchrotron-based hydroxyl radical footprinting, can involve use ofmulti-million dollar facilities such as a synchrotron.

A need exists for inexpensive systems and fast methods for studying theconformatiome, without the need to introduce the biological molecule(s)in question to foreign substances that might alter their structure.

SUMMARY

The present disclosure overcomes the aforementioned drawbacks bypresenting methods, systems, compositions of matter, and kits relatingto plasma-induced oxidation of biological molecules.

In one aspect, this disclosure provides a method of modifying abiological molecule located in a sample. The sample can be contacted bya fluid or enclosed within a confined space. The sample or fluid cancontain a plurality of marker radical precursors. The method can includeone or more of the following steps: a) generating a plasma in the fluidand/or generating the plasma within the sample, the plasma in the fluidhaving at least a portion of the plasma within 1 cm of the sample,thereby converting one or more of the plurality of marker radicalprecursors into one or more marker radicals; and b) waiting a length oftime sufficient for the one or more marker radicals to interact with thebiological molecule, thereby modifying the biological molecule.

In another aspect, this disclosure provides a method of modifying aplurality of biological molecules located in a plurality of samples. Theplurality of samples can be contacted by a fluid or isolated in aplurality of confined spaces. The plurality of sample or the fluid cancontain a plurality of marker radical precursors. The method can includeone or more of the following steps: a) generating a plasma or aplurality of plasmas in the fluid, the plasma or the plurality ofplasmas in the fluid having at least a portion of the plasma or theplurality of plasmas within 1 cm of each of the plurality of samples, orgenerating a plurality of plasmas within the plurality of samples,thereby converting one or more of the plurality of marker radicalprecursors into one or more marker radicals; and b) waiting a length oftime sufficient for one or more of the plurality of marker radicals tointeract with the plurality of biological molecules, thereby modifyingthe plurality of biological molecules.

In yet another aspect, the present disclosure provides a method ofdetermining if a portion of a biological molecule is accessible to asolvent. The biological molecule and the solvent can be contained in asample. The sample can be contacted by a fluid or enclosed within aconfined space. The sample or the fluid can contain a marker radicalprecursor. The method can include one or more of the following steps: a)oxidizing, by way of a plasma that introduces marker radicals to thesample, the biological molecule; b) subsequent to step a), assessingwhether the portion of the biological molecule was oxidized by theoxidizing of step a), wherein the presence of oxidizing indicates thatthe portion is accessible to the solvent and the absence of oxidizingindicates that the portion is inaccessible to the solvent.; and c)generating a report indicating whether the portion is accessible to thesolvent or inaccessible to the solvent.

In a further aspect, the present disclosure provides a method ofassessing a biological sample containing one or more biologicalmolecules having one or more solvent accessible portions and one or moresolvent inaccessible portions. The method can include one or more of thefollowing steps: a) acquiring a first subsample and a second subsampleof the biological sample, the first subsample and the second subsamplecontaining substantially equivalent concentrations of the one or morebiological molecules; b) introducing a cleavage factor into the secondsubsample of the biological sample, the cleavage factor configured toalter the one or more biological molecules to expose at least a portionof the solvent inaccessible portions to solvent; c) oxidizing, by way ofa plasma that introduces marker radicals to the first subsample and thesecond subsample, the one or more biological molecules in the firstsubsample and the second subsample; d) subsequent to step c), assessinga difference in oxidization levels between the one or more biologicalmolecules in the first subsample and the second subsample, therebyidentifying at least a portion of the one or more solvent inaccessibleportions; and e) generating a report indicating the identification ofthe at least a portion of the one or more solvent inaccessible portions.

In yet another aspect, the present disclosure provides a system formodifying a biological molecules. The system can include a samplechamber, a ground electrode, a dielectric, a plasma electrode, a plasmaelectrode positioning system, a power supply, and a control system. Thesample chamber can be configured to contain a sample including abiological molecule. The sample chamber can include a chemically andbiologically inert inner surface. The dielectric can separate the samplechamber from the ground electrode. The control system can be inelectronic communication with the power supply, the ground electrode,and the plasma electrode. The control system can be configured toutilize electrical power from the power supply with the plasma electrodeand the ground electrode to generate a plasma from the plasma sourcepoint. The plasma can be configured to generate marker radicals suitablefor oxidizing the biological molecule.

In a further aspect, the present disclosure provides a system formodifying a biological molecule. The system can include a samplechamber, a plasma jet, a plasma jet positioning system, a power supply,and a control system. The sample chamber can be configured to contain asample including a biological molecule. The sample chamber can have achemically and biologically inert inner surface. The plasma jet can beconfigured to generate a plasma and direct the plasma into the samplechamber. The control system can be in electronic communication with thepower supply and the plasma jet. The control system can be configured toutilize electrical power from the power supply with the plasma jet togenerate a plasma and direct the plasma into the sample chamber. Theplasma can be configured to generate marker radicals suitable foroxidizing the biological molecule.

In an additional aspect, the present disclosure provides a compositionof matter. The composition of matter can include a biological moleculeand at least one marker radical precursor in a liquid sample and aplasma within the liquid sample. The plasma can be configured to convertthe at least one marker radical precursor into a marker radical.

In yet a further aspect, the present disclosure provides a compositionof matter. The composition of matter can include a synthetic biologicalmolecule configured to have a predictable response to plasma-inducedoxidation.

In another additional aspect, the present disclosure provides a kit. Thekit can include a reference sample having a known response toplasma-induced oxidation and information regarding the known response.

BRIEF DESCRIPTIONS OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a system according to an aspect of the present disclosure.

FIG. 2 is a system according to an aspect of the present disclosure.

FIG. 3 is an image of a plasma according to an aspect of the presentdisclosure.

FIG. 4 is a plot of the voltage and current across a discharge, asdescribed in Example 1.

FIG. 5 is a plot showing relative modification of a biological molecule,as described in Example 1.

FIG. 6 is a plot showing percent modification of a biological molecule,as described in Example 2.

FIG. 7 is an image of an electrophoresis gel illustrating breakdown ofDNA, as described in Example 3.

FIG. 8 is an image of an electrophoresis gel illustrating breakdown ofDNA, as described in Example 3.

FIG. 9 is a plot showing percent modification of a biological moleculewithin a cell, as described in Example 4.

FIG. 10 is a plot showing percent modification of specific portions of aspecific biological molecule within a cell, as described in Example 4.

FIG. 11 is a pair of plots of oxidation of undigested and digestedbovine serum albumin, as described in Example 6.

FIG. 12 is a pair of plots of oxidation of undigested and digestedbovine serum albumin, as described in Example 6.

FIG. 13 is a pair of plots of oxidation of undigested and digestedbovine serum albumin, as described in Example 6.

FIG. 14 is a pair of plots of oxidation of undigested and digestedbovine serum albumin, as described in Example 6.

FIG. 15 is a pair of plots of oxidation of undigested and digestedbovine serum albumin, as described in Example 6.

FIG. 16 is a pair of plots of oxidation of undigested and digestedbovine serum albumin, as described in Example 6.

FIG. 17 is a crystal structure of epidermal growth factor receptorprotein, showing residues with reduced oxidation when bound withepidermal growth factor.

FIG. 18 is a crystal structure of epidermal growth factor receptorprotein homodimer, showing residues with reduced oxidation when boundwith epidermal growth factor.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Before the present invention is described in further detail, it is to beunderstood that the invention is not limited to the particularembodiments described. It is also understood that the terminology usedherein is for the purpose of describing particular embodiments only, andis not intended to be limiting. The scope of the present invention willbe limited only by the claims. As used herein, the singular forms “a”,“an”, and “the” include plural embodiments unless the context clearlydictates otherwise.

Specific structures, devices and methods relating to modifyingbiological molecules are disclosed. It should be apparent to thoseskilled in the art that many additional modifications beside thosealready described are possible without departing from the inventiveconcepts. In interpreting this disclosure, all terms should beinterpreted in the broadest possible manner consistent with the context.Variations of the term “comprising” should be interpreted as referringto elements, components, or steps in a non-exclusive manner, so thereferenced elements, components, or steps may be combined with otherelements, components, or steps that are not expressly referenced.Embodiments referenced as “comprising” certain elements are alsocontemplated as “consisting essentially of” and “consisting of” thoseelements. When two or more ranges for a particular value are recited,this disclosure contemplates all combinations of the upper and lowerbounds of those ranges that are not explicitly recited. For example,recitation of a value of between 1 and 10 or between 2 and 9 alsocontemplates a value of between 1 and 9 or between 2 and 10.

The various aspects may be described herein in terms of variousfunctional components and processing steps. It should be appreciatedthat such components and steps may be realized by any number of hardwarecomponents configured to perform the specified functions.

Methods

This disclosure provides a variety of methods. It should be appreciatedthat various methods are suitable for use with other methods. Similarly,it should be appreciated that various methods are suitable for use withthe systems and compositions described elsewhere herein. When a featureof the present disclosure is described with respect to a given method,that feature is also expressly contemplated as being useful for theother methods, the systems, and the compositions described herein,unless the context clearly dictates otherwise.

The methods of the present disclosure generally emerge from a discoveryof a new process for modifying biological molecules. This new processinvolves the generation of a plasma, which itself generates markerradicals (for example, hydroxyl radicals) that can oxidate varioussubstituents on the biological molecule. The oxidation of biologicalmolecules using hydroxyl radicals is generally known and the presentdisclosure represents an improvement in this process.

In one aspect, this disclosure provides a method of modifying abiological molecule. The biological molecule can be located in a sample.The sample can be contacted by a fluid or enclosed within a confinedspace. The method can include: a) generating a plasma in the fluidwithin a distance of the sample or generating the plasma within thesample; and b) waiting a length of time. The plasma can have a nearestpoint to the sample at a distance of up to 1 cm, including but notlimited to, up to 5 mm, up to 3 mm, up to 1 mm, up to 100 μm, up to 10μm, or up to 1 μm. In certain aspects, the plasma can contact thesample. In certain aspects where the plasma is generated via anelectrode, the plasma can be generated by an electrode that ispositioned relative to the sample at a distance of up to 3 cm, includingbut not limited to, a distance of up to 1 cm, or a distance of up to 3mm. A person having ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that thesedistances can be scaled up or down by, for example, using a larger orsmaller voltage or changing the frequency of plasma pulses.

The generating of step a) can thereby convert one or more of theplurality of marker radical precursors into one or more marker radicals.Examples of the marker radical include, but are not limited to, ahydroxyl radical (.OH), a hydrogen radical (H.), a nitrite or nitrogendioxide radical (.NO₂), a nitrate radical (.NO₃), a peroxide radical(.OOH), other radicals known to those having ordinary skill in the artas being generated by a plasma interacting with a radical precursor,combinations thereof, and the like. Examples of the marker radicalprecursor include, but are not limited to, a hydroxyl radical precursor,such as water or hydrogen peroxide, a hydrogen radical precursors, suchas hydrogen gas, a nitrite or nitrogen dioxide radical precursor, suchas nitrite or nitrogen dioxide, a nitrate radical precursor, such asnitrate, a peroxide radical precursor, such as hydrogen peroxide, otherprecursors known to those having ordinary skill in the art to beconverted into a radical by interacting with a plasma, combinationsthereof, and the like. The length of time can be a length of timesufficient for the one or more marker radicals to interact with thebiological molecule. This interaction can modify the biologicalmolecule.

Without wishing to be bound by any particular theory, the generating aplasma in the fluid can involve converting marker radical precursors inthe fluid into marker radicals, which then diffuse or are somehowotherwise transported into the sample. Without wishing to be bound byany particular theory, the generating a plasma within the sample caninvolve converting marker radical precursors in the sample into markerradicals, which diffuse within the sample and then interact with thebiological molecules. In certain aspects, the generating a plasma in thefluid or within the sample can include generating a plasma within boththe fluid and the sample.

In certain aspects, the generating a plasma step can include generatinga plasma from a plasma jet. The principle behind the plasma jet isdescribed in greater detail below, but briefly, the plasma jet involvesgenerating a plasma in a confined space and subsequently using gas flowto project the generated plasma toward a target (in this case, towardthe sample).

The generating a plasma step can include generating a single plasmapulse or a sequence of plasma pulses.

In certain aspects, the plasma can be generated by a voltage of between1 V and 1 MV, including but not limited to, a voltage of between 500 Vand 100 kV, between 1 kV and 50 kV, or between 5 kV and 15 kV. As withthe distances disclosed above, these voltages can be scaled up or downdepending on the specific operational parameters.

In aspects utilizing a sequence of plasma pulses, the operationalparameters in this paragraph can be utilized. The plasma pulses can havea pulse width in a range of between 1 ps and 1 ms, including but notlimited to, a pulse with in a range of between 500 ps and 100 μs orbetween 1 ns and 10 μs. The sequence of plasma pulses can have afrequency in a range of between 1 Hz and 100 GHz, including but notlimited to, a frequency in a range of between 10 Hz and 100 MHz, orbetween 1 kHz and 10 kHz. The sequence of plasma pulses can be generatedfor a total length of time in a range of between 1 ns and hours to days,including but not limited to, a total length of time in a range ofbetween between 100 ns and 20 minutes, between 1 μs and 1 hour, between1 ms and 30 minutes, between 1 s and 10 minutes, or between 30 s and 5minutes. The aforementioned pulse width, frequency, and total length oftime parameters for a sequence of plasma pulses can vary depending onthe lifetime of the marker radicals being produced, the concentration ofthe target biological molecule, the size of the target biologicalmolecule, the concentration of the marker radical precursor, thestability of the target biological molecule in the presence of varyingconcentrations of the marker radicals, and/or the extent of modificationand/or destruction of the biological molecule that is desired.

In certain aspects, the plasma generating step can be configured togenerate a concentration of marker radicals with the sample. Theconcentration of marker radicals is at its highest immediately followingthe plasma and decays over time as the marker radicals interact withbiological molecules, interact with other components within the sample,and/or naturally decay over time due to recombination processes. Incertain aspects, the generating a plasma step can be configured toprovide a peak concentration of marker radicals in the sample that canbe between 50 nM and 800 μM, including but not limited to, a peakconcentration of marker radicals in the sample of between 500 nM and 800nM, between 5 μM and 8 μM, or between 50 μm and 80 μm. In certainaspects, the generating a plasma step can be configured to provide anaverage concentration of marker radicals in the sample of betweenbetween 50 nM and 800 μM, including but not limited to, a peakconcentration of marker radicals in the sample of between 500 nM and 800nM, between 5 μM and 8 μM, or between 50 μm and 80 μm. In certainaspects, the average concentration can be a fraction or percentage ofthe values provided based on the “on” time of the plasma, including butnot limited to, 75%, 50%, 40%, 30%, 20%, or 10% of the values provided.The average concentration can be measured for the length of time duringwhich the plasma or the sequence of plasma pulses is generated plus alength of time of about 5 seconds, 10 seconds, 30 second, or 1 minute.

In certain aspects, the generating a plasma step can elevate atemperature of the sample by an amount less than an amount that wouldbegin denaturation of the biological molecule or the plurality ofbiological molecules. If the plurality of biological molecules havedifferent temperatures at which they denature, then the generating aplasma step can elevate the temperature of the sample by an amount lessthan an amount that would begin denaturation of the biological moleculehaving the lowest denaturation temperature. For purposes of this aspectof the disclosure, denaturation can refer to denaturation of quaternary,tertiary, or secondary structure.

In certain aspects, the generating a plasma step can elevate atemperature of the sample by less than 50° C., including but not limitedto, less than 5° C., or less than 0.5° C. In certain aspects, thegenerating a plasma step can elevate a temperature of the sample to atemperature of less than 73.5° C., including but not limited to, atemperature of less than 28.5° C., or a temperature of less than 23.5°C.

In certain aspects, the generating a plasma step can transfer an amountof energy per unit volume to the sample of less than 60 MJ/μL, includingbut not limited to, an amount of energy per unit volume to the sample ofless than 180 MJ/μL, or less than 360 MJ/μL.

In certain aspects, the method can be performed on a sample having avolume of between 1 μL and 400 L, including but not limited to, a volumeof between 10 μL and 100 mL, or a volume between 50 μL and 200 μL.

In aspects where the sample is contacted by a fluid, the fluid can be agaseous feedgas containing marker radical precursor in a concentrationrange of between 0.01 wt % and 99.99 wt %, including but not limited to,a concentration range of between 10% and 99.9%, or between 90% and 99%.The gaseous feedgas can be air, oxygen, nitrogen, argon, helium, xenon,krypton, carbon tetrafluoride, hydrogen, combinations thereof, and thelike.

In aspects where the marker radical precursor is located in the sample,the sample can contain marker radical precursor in a concentration rangeof between 0.01 wt % and 99.99 wt %, including but not limited to, aconcentration range of between 10% and 99.9%, or between 90% and 99%.

The methods of modifying a biological molecule can be extended to modifya plurality of biological molecules. This can be done in at least twoways. First, a single sample can contain multiple biological molecules.Second, a plurality of samples, each containing at least one biologicalmolecule, can undergo the methods described herein. For this secondapproach involving a plurality of samples, the aspects of the methodsdescribed with respect to a single sample, such as volume for example,can be applicable to each of the plurality of samples.

The sample can be a biological sample that contains within it one ormore biological molecules or the sample can be a sample that is preparedto include the biological molecule, such as a protein sample that isdissolved in a buffer solution.

In certain aspects, the biological molecule can be selected from thegroup consisting of a nucleic acid molecule, a protein, a lipid, abiological metabolite, and combinations thereof.

In certain aspects, the sample can be selected from the group consistingof blood, blood plasma, urine, saliva, lymph, tears, sweat,cerebrospinal fluid, amniotic fluid, aqueous humour, vitreous humour,bile, breast milk, cerumen, chyle, chime, endolymph, perilymph,exudates, feces, female ejaculate, gastric acid, gastric juice, mucus,pericardial fluid, peritoneal fluid, pleural fluid, pus, rheum, sebum,serious fluid, semen, smegma, sputum, synovial fluid, vaginal secretion,vomit, living bacterial cultures, living tissue or eukaryotic cellcultures, and combinations thereof. In certain aspects, the sample canbe selected from the group consisting of eukaryotic intracellular fluid,eukaryotic extracellular fluid, prokaryotic intracellular fluid,prokaryotic extracellular fluid, homogenized tissue or cells,homogenized tissue or cell culture, homogenized plant tissue, andcombinations thereof. In certain aspects where the sample isextracellular fluid, the extracellular fluid can be selected from thegroup consisting of intravascular fluid, interstitial fluid, lymphaticfluid, transcellular fluid, plant apoplastic or vascular fluid, excessnutrient medium from prokaryotic or eukaryotic in vitro growth, andcombinations thereof. In certain aspects where the sample is livingbacterial, tissue, or eukaryotic cell cultures, the cultures can be anyspecies of prokaryotic organism, any mammalian tissue or cell culture,any culturable species of eukaryotic organism, or combinations thereof.In certain aspects, the sample can be any living organism orsub-component of an organism, such as one or more cells, that can besuitable positioned in the systems described herein and/or suitable foruse in the methods described herein.

In certain aspects, the sample can comprise one or more biologicalmolecules and a buffer solution. In certain aspects, the buffer solutioncan include or be a phosphate buffered saline solution,tris(hydroxymethyl)aminomethane (tris), tris hydrochloric acid, ammoniumbicarbonate, 4-(2-hydroxyethyl)-1-piperazineethanesulfonic acid (HEPES),3-(N-morpholino)propanesulfonic acid (MOPS),2-(N-morpholino)ethanesulfonic acid (MES),2,2-Bis(hydroxymethyl)-2,2′,2″-nitrilotriethanol (bis-tris),N-(2-Acetamido)iminodiacetic acid (ADA),piperazine-N,N′-bis(2-ethanesulfonic acid) (PIPES),N-(2-Acetamido)-2-aminoethanesulfonic acid (ACES),3-(N-morpholinyl)-2-hydroxypropanesulfonic acid sodium salt (MOPSO),1,3-bis(tris(hydroxymethyl)methylamino)propane (bis-tris propane),N,N-Bis(2-hydroxyethyl)-2-aminoethanesulfonic acid (BES),2-[[1,3-dihydroxy-2-(hydroxymethyl)propan-2-yl]amino]ethanesulfonic acid(TES), 3-(Bis(2-hydroxyethyl)amino)-2-hydroxypropane-1-sulfonic acid(DIPSO),3-[[1,3-dihydroxy-2-(hydroxymethyl)propan-2-yl]amino]-2-hydroxypropane-1-sulfonicacid (TAPSO), Trizma, piperazine-1,4-bis(2-hydroxypropanesulfonic acid)dihydrate (POPSO), 3-[4-(2-Hydroxyethyl)-1-piperazinyl]propanesulfonicacid (HEPPS), N-(2-Hydroxy-1,1-bis(hydroxymethyl)ethyl)glycine(TRICINE), glycylglycine (GLY-GLY), 2-(Bis(2-hydroxyethyl)amino)aceticacid (BICINE), N-(2-hydroxyethyl)piperazine-N′-(4-butanesulfonic acid)(HEPES),34[1,3-dihydroxy-2-(hydroxymethyl)propan-2-yl]amino]propane-1-sulfonicacid (TAPS), 2-amino-2-methyl-1,3-propanediol (AMPD),N-(1,1-Dimethyl-2-hydroxyethyl)-3-amino-2-hydroxypropanesulfonic acid(AMPSO), N-cyclohexyl-2-aminoethanesulfonic acid (CHES),N-cyclohexyl-2-hydroxyl-3-aminopropanesulfonic acid (CAPSO),1-amino-2-methyl-1-propanol (AMP), N-cyclohexyl-3-aminopropanesulfonicacid (CAPS), 4-(cyclohexylamino)-1-butanesulfonic acid (CABS), Lysogenybroth (LB) or other nutrient growth media, anything defined as a‘biological buffer’, a biologically or physiologically-relevant salt,combinations thereof, and the like. In certain aspects, the buffersolution can have a pH value of between 1 and 14, including but notlimited to, a pH of between 3 and 9, or a pH of between 4 and 8.

The operational parameters of the methods described above can beutilized by a person having ordinary skill in the art to introduce adesired amount of oxidation to a biological molecule. In addition, theoperational parameters can be utilized by a person having ordinary skillin the art to induce this oxidation with a minimal amount of damage tothe biological molecule. On the other hand, the operational parameterscan be utilized by a person having ordinary skill in the art to inducethis oxidation under conditions that cause a desired amount of damage tothe biological molecule. It should be appreciated that various sorts ofinformation can be realized from methods that induce no damage andvarious different sorts of information can be realized from methods thatinduce controlled damage and/or complete damage.

The control of the level of oxidation and the amount of damage can bemonitored using a control sample having a predictable, known response tocertain ideal operational parameters. For example, the cytochrome Cexperiments described below in Example 1 could be used as a benchmarkfor determining if the operational parameters for a certain experimentare appropriate. In certain aspects, the methods described herein caninclude a step of confirming a set of operational parameters using acontrol sample having a known response to plasma-induced oxidation.

The methods described above can be utilized to determine structuralinformation about a biological molecule. Biological molecules caninclude secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structure that precludessolvent interaction with various parts of the biological molecule.

In another aspect, the present disclosure provides a method ofdetermining if a portion of a biological molecule is accessible to asolvent. The method can include the following steps: oxidizing, by wayof a plasma that introduces marker radicals to the sample, thebiological molecule; subsequent to the oxidizing, assessing whether theportion of the biological molecule was oxidized by the oxidizing of stepa), wherein the presence of oxidizing indicates that the portion isaccessible to the solvent and the absence of oxidizing indicates thatthe portion is inaccessible to the solvent.; and generating a reportindicating whether the portion is accessible to the solvent orinaccessible to the solvent.

In another aspect, this disclosure provides a method of assessing abiological sample containing one or more biological molecules having oneor more solvent accessible portions and one or more solvent inaccessibleportions. The method can include the following steps: acquiring a firstsubsample and a second subsample of the biological sample, the firstsubsample and the second subsample containing substantially equivalentconcentrations of the one or more biological molecules; introducing acleavage factor into the second subsample of the biological sample, thecleavage factor configured to alter the one or more biological moleculesto expose at least a portion of the solvent inaccessible portions tosolvent; oxidizing, by way of a plasma that introduces marker radicalsto the first subsample and the second subsample, the one or morebiological molecules in the first subsample and the second subsample;subsequent to the oxidizing, assessing the difference in oxidizationlevels between the one or more biological molecules in the firstsubsample and the second subsample, thereby identifying at least aportion of the one or more solvent inaccessible portions; and generatinga report.

The oxidizing of these methods can be achieved by the methods describedelsewhere herein.

The introducing a cleavage factor step can be used to prompt apredictable change in structure in the one or more biological molecules.Using this predictable change in structure as a baseline of comparison,comparing the oxidation levels of biological molecules not subject tothe cleavage factor with those that were subject to the cleavage factorcan provide information about the solvent accessibility.

In some aspects, the cleavage factor can expose all of the solventinaccessible portions of the one or more biological molecules tosolvent. For example, a protein can be digested into individual aminoacids, which are all accessible to solvent, in which case the digestedprotein would have all portions accessible to solvent, and thusoxidation, and the undigested protein would have only its normallysolvent accessible portions accessible to solvent.

The cleavage factor can be Trypsin (bovine), Chymotrypsin (bovine),Endoproteinase Asp-N (Pseudomonas fragi), Endoproteinase Arg-C (mousesubmaxillary gland), Endoproteinase Glu-C (V8 protease) (Staphylococcusaureus), Endoproteinase Lys-C (Lysobacter enzymogenes), Pepsin(porcine), Thermolysin (Bacillus thermo-proteolyticus), Elastase(porcine), Papain (Carica papaya), Proteinase K (Tritirachium album),Subtilisin (Bacillus subtilis), Clostripain (endoproteinase-Arg-C)(Clostridium histolyticum), Exopeptidase, Carboxypeptidase A (bovine),Carboxypeptidase B (porcine), Carboxypeptidase P (Penicilliumjanthinellum), Carboxypeptidase Y (yeast), Cathepsin C,Acylamino-acid-releasing enzyme (porcine), Pyroglutamate aminopeptidase(bovine), other cleavage factors known to those having ordinary skill inthe art, combinations thereof, and the like.

The assessing steps can involve mass spectrometry analysis, gelelectrophoresis, sequencing, such as DNA sequencing, and the like. Theoxidizing described herein can change the molecular weight of a portionof a biological molecule. For instance, certain amino acids aresusceptible to oxidation by marker radicals. An increase in themolecular weight of a specific amino acid indicates that it was solventaccessible at the time of the oxidizing. As another example, a piece ofDNA in vivo can be sheltered from the surrounding environment (forexample, by having a protein bound to it), and that piece will not beexposed to the radicals generated as described herein, and thus will notundergo radical cleavage. Thus, pieces of DNA that remain intact and areidentified as such can be correlated with being bound by proteins invivo.

The methods described herein can be useful for a variety ofapplications, including but not limited to, quality control forbiopharmaceuticals. Biopharmaceuticals can be effective in certain casesonly if they retain the necessary secondary, tertiary, and/or quaternarystructure to allow them to function in a biological environment asintended. Accordingly, during production, throughout transportation, andprior to use, it can be important to confirm that a biopharmaceuticalhas not lost its intended secondary, tertiary, and/or quaternarystructure. The methods described herein provide the means to monitorthis structure, and assess the compliance of a biopharmaceutical.

The methods described herein can also be utilized in assessing a diseasestate in a subject, where the disease state is expressed by aconformational change in one or more biological molecules. For example,if a disease state is expressed by the breaking apart of a proteindimer, the methods of the present disclosure could be used to identifythat the contact surfaces between the subunits of the dimer, which arenormally not accessible to solvent, have become accessible to solvent.If the methods determine that the contact surfaces are accessible tosolvent, then this information could be used to form a diagnosis for thedisease state.

The methods described herein can be utilized to studytemperature-dependent properties of a sample of interest. For example,kinetics, protein folding, and other temperature-dependent mechanisms ofinterest can be studied with temperature-dependent deployment of themethods described herein.

The methods described herein can be utilized to determine a rate ofmodification for components or sub-components within the sample ofinterest. For example, the methods described herein can compare the rateof oxidation of two different residues on a protein of interest and canmake various subsequent deductions based on the differences betweenthose rates, such as determining a level of solvent accessibility.

Systems

This disclosure also provides systems. The systems can be suitable foruse with the methods and compositions described herein. When a featureof the present disclosure is described with respect to a given system,that feature is also expressly contemplated as being combinable with theother systems, the methods, and the compositions described herein,unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. In addition, featuresdescribed below with respect to the aspect of the present disclosureshown in FIG. 1 are applicable to the aspect of the present disclosureshown in FIG. 2, and vice versa, unless the context clearly dictatesotherwise. For example, the cooling device 44, sample chamber holder 46,or protective housing 48 and door 50 illustrated in FIG. 2 can bedeployed in the context of FIG. 1 without departing from the scope ofthe present disclosure.

In an aspect, referring to FIG. 1, the disclosure provides a system 10for modifying a biological molecule. The system 10 for modifying abiological molecule can include a sample chamber 12, a ground electrode14, a plasma electrode 16, a power supply 18, and a control system 20.The system 10 can also include an amplifier 22 located between the powersupply 18 and the plasma electrode 16. The system can include adielectric 24 located between the sample chamber 12 and the groundelectrode 14.

The sample chamber 12 can be configured to receive a sample 26. Thesample 26 can be those described elsewhere herein. The sample chamber 12can have an inner surface that is chemically and/or biologically inert.As used herein, biologically inert refers to a material not impactingthe conformational state of one or more biological molecules.

The sample chamber 12 can take various shapes, such as a cylinder, anelliptical cylinder, a cuboid, a frustum of a cone, a frustum of apyramid (triangular, rectangular, pentagonal, etc.), a prism(triangular, pentagonal, hexagonal, etc.), any suitable shape forholding a liquid sample, any subdivision thereof (for example, asemicylinder), and the like.

The sample chamber 12 can have a height 28 and a width 30 that areconfigured to provide optimal plasma generation, and subsequentinteraction of generated marker radicals. The height 28 can be 0.75inches and the width 30 can be 0.5 inches, though other sizes of samplechamber 12 are contemplated and appropriate sizes can be determined by aperson having ordinary skill in the art.

In some aspects, the sample chamber 12 can have an open top. In someaspects, the sample chamber can have a closed top. In aspects where thesample chamber 12 has a closed top, the sample 26 can entirely fill thesample chamber 12, such that there is no fluid, such as a gas, air,etc., contacting the sample 26 or the sample 26 can fill a portion ofthe sample chamber 12 with a fluid occupying the remaining portion ofthe sample chamber 12.

In certain aspects, the sample chamber 12 can be a portion of amicrofluidic device and/or channel.

The ground electrode 14 can be composed of a conductive material knownto those having ordinary skill in the art. Examples of suitableconductive materials for use in the ground electrode 14 include, but arenot limited to, copper, silver, gold, aluminum, iron, graphite, calcium,beryllium, magnesium, rhodium, molybdenum, iridium, tungsten, zinc,cobalt, cadmium, nickel, ruthenium, lithium, osmium, platinum,palladium, selenium, tantalum, columbium, lead, vanadium, tin, titanium,conductive oxides thereof, conductive alloys thereof, conductivepolymers, and combinations thereof.

The plasma electrode 16 can be composed of a conductive material knownto those having ordinary skill in the art. Examples of suitableconductive materials for use in the plasma electrode 16 include, but arenot limited to, the materials listed above as suitable for use in theground electrode 14.

In some aspects, the plasma electrode 16 can be in close proximity tothe sample or can contact the sample. In cases where the plasmaelectrode 16 is in close proximity to the sample or in contact with thesample, the plasma electrode 16 can be made of a material that isnon-contaminating of the sample. A person having ordinary skill in theart will appreciate that the extent to which the plasma electrode 16 iscontaminating of the sample is dependent on the properties of thesample. The plasma electrode 16 can be non-contaminating to the samplesdescribed elsewhere herein.

The plasma electrode 16 can have a plasma source point 32 that is thepoint from which the plasma 34 emerges. The plasma electrode 16 can havemultiple plasma source points 32.

In certain aspects, the plasma electrode 16 can have a dielectriccoating (not illustrated) that can prevent direct contact between theplasma electrode 16 and the sample 26. The dielectric coating can coverat least the plasma source point 32. A person having ordinary skill inthe art will appreciate the impact that such a coating might have on theplasma generation properties of the system 10, and can adjust thevarious aspects of the system 10 to accommodate such a coating whilemaintaining the overall performance of the system 10.

In certain aspects, the plasma electrode 16 can have the shape of aneedle or any shape suitable for producing a plasma 34. The plasmasource point 32 can take a shape that is suitable for producing a plasma34 in accordance with the present disclosure. In certain aspects, theplasma source point 32 can take the shape of a needle tip, a convexrounded surface, a flat surface, multiple needle tips, a disk, a sphere,or other shapes known to a person having ordinary skill in the art to besuitable for generating a plasma 34.

In certain aspects, the plasma 34 can be generated by a plasma generatorthat does not include electrodes. As one example, a microwave source canbe configured to generate a plasma 34 having the properties describedelsewhere herein.

In certain aspects, the plasma electrode 16 can be mechanically coupledto a plasma electrode translation device 36. Examples of plasmaelectrode translation devices 36 include, but are not limited to, 1-,2-, or 3-dimensional translation stages (manual and motor-driven), arobotic arm, an array of electrodes, and the like.

Also contemplated are systems where the sample chamber 12, the groundelectrode 14, and optionally the dielectric 24 are movable relative tothe plasma electrode 16 by way of a sample chamber translation device(not illustrated). Examples of sample chamber translation devicesinclude those described above with respect to the plasma electrodetranslation devices 36.

The control system 20 can include various function generators,programmable controls, pulse generators, voltmeters, ampmeters, lightsensors, thermometers, gas pressure sensors, gas flow controllers,fluorimeters, monochrometers, liquid flow meters, liquid flowcontrollers, timers, or other components that a person having ordinaryskill in the art would recognize as useful for the control of variouscomponents of the system 10. In some cases, the control system 20 is acomputer. The control system 20 can be configured to provide precisioncontrol of the time of plasma discharge. The control system 20 canprovide millisecond resolution of plasma discharge, such as resolutionof greater than 100 ms, greater than 10 ms, or greater than 1 ms.

The system 10 can include a user interface 38. The user interface 38 canbe in communication with the control system 20 and/or the electrodetranslation device 36. The user interface can take the form of acomputer, a personal device, such as a tablet or a smart phone, anarrangement of mechanical inputs such as buttons, knobs, switches, andthe like, or other means of receiving user input and providing signalsto the control system 20 and/or the electrode translation device 36 tooperate the system 10.

In certain aspects, the system 10 can have more than one sample chamber12. In these aspects, the system 10 can also have more than one plasmaelectrodes 16 in an amount equal to the number of sample chambers 16.For example, the system 10 can have an array of sample chambers 12similar to a 96-well plate and an array of individual or independentplasma electrodes 16 configured such that each sample chamber 12 has aplasma source point 32 positioned within it for generation of plasmas34.

In an aspect, the system 10 can be used for assessing a biologicalsample. The system 10 for assessing the biological sample can optionallyinclude an analytical device 40 capable of determining whether a portionof a biological molecule has been modified by a marker radical. Theanalytical device 40 can optionally be in electronic communication withthe control system 20 and/or the user input 38. The control system 20can optionally coordinate control of the analytical device 40 along withother aspects of the system 10. The user interface 38 can optionally beused in coordination with the analytical device 40 to control theanalytical device and/or to directly receive user inputs for control ofthe analytical device 40.

In certain aspects, the analytical device 40 can be a mass spectrometer.The mass spectrometer can be a dedicated mass spectrometer configured todetect species of particular relevance. For example, a dedicated massspectrometer can be configured to detect the mass of oxidized andnon-oxidized peptides, for which sequence information localizing themodified amino acids can be obtained, while ignoring other masses.

In certain aspects, the sample chamber 12 can be directly connected tothe analytical device 40, so the sample can be processed automaticallywithout requiring a user to transfer the sample to the analyticaldevice. In certain aspects, an automated transfer can occur by way of,for example, a robotic pipette system.

In certain aspects, the system 10 can include a sample hopper forautomatically introducing the sample 26 into the sample chamber 12. Anexample of a sample hopper includes, but is not limited to, an automatedpipette positioned above the sample chamber. A person having ordinaryskill in the art will appreciate that automation technology that isusable with other technologies, such as gas chromatography, can beusable with the system 10.

By using the automated loading and/or the automated transfer to theanalytical device, in combination with the reference samples and kitsdescribed below, the system 10 can automatically optimize theoperational parameters. For example, the system 10 could have stored ina memory a reference mass spectrum. The system could then automaticallyintroduce a reference sample into the sample chamber, automaticallyoxidize the reference sample with a set of operational parameters,automatically transfer the oxidized reference sample to a mass spec,automatically acquire a mass spectrum of the reference sample, thecompare the acquired mass spectrum with the stored reference massspectrum. The system could repeat this process and vary the operationalparameters using an optimizing routine until the acquired mass spectrumsubstantially matches the stored reference mass spectrum.

As used herein, a “ground electrode” refers to an individual groundelectrode or a plurality of ground electrodes that groundedsubstantially equivalently to one another. For example, a plurality ofcopper electrodes that are all electronically connected to a singleground can be considered a ground electrode in the context of thisdisclosure. For clarity, reference to a ground electrode includes anynumber of individual ground electrodes.

Referring to FIG. 2, the system 10 is illustrated with modificationsthat are compatible with and swappable with features illustrated inFIG. 1. Features shown in FIG. 2 and described above with respect toFIG. 1 will not be reiterated here for efficiency sake, but are deployedin the same and/or similar context described above. Should such featuresrequire adaptation to be used in the context of FIG. 2, a person havingordinary skill in the art would understand how to accommodate suchadaptations. In an aspect, referring to FIG. 2, the disclosure providesa system 10 including a plasma jet 42. The system 10 can include aplasma jet translation device 37 configured to physical manipulate theplasma jet 42 in order to precisely deliver a plasma 34 emerging fromthe plasma jet 42. The system 10 can include a cooling device 44configured to thermally cool the sample 26 within the sample chamber 12.The system can include a sample chamber holder 46 configured to receivethe sample chamber 12. The system 10 can include a protective housing48. The protective housing 48 can include a door 50. The system 10 caninclude a gas manifold 52. The system 10 can include a temperaturesensor 54.

As used herein, the term “plasma jet” refers to a device that generatesa plasma within a first space and propels the generated plasma toward atarget by way of movement of a gas and the shaping of the plasma jet.Persons having ordinary skill in the plasma generating arts willrecognize that the plasma jet can take various forms without departingfrom the scope of the present disclosure. In one example, the plasma jet42 can be a glass tube through which a fluid having marker radicalprecursors, as described above, flows. The glass tube can be surroundedby electrodes, in some cases coiled electrodes, that are configured togenerate a plasma 34 within the glass tube. The flow rate of the fluidcan then be adjusted to propel the plasma 34 out of the glass tube andtoward the sample 26. The glass tube can have a shape to facilitatereproducible directing of the plasma 34. The plasma jet 42 can havefeedgas controls known to those having ordinary skill in the art and canbe controlled by the control system 42. The plasma jet 42 can also havethe capacity to deploy sheath gases for control of directionality, size,and shape of the plasma 34. A non-limiting example of acommercially-available plasma jet is the PlasmaJet®, availablecommercially from Plasma Surgical, Inc. headquartered in Roswell, Ga.

The advantages of using a plasma jet 42 can include, but are not limitedto, positional flexibility, increased control of the plasma 34, andother advantages that would be appreciated to those of skill in the art.As one example, use of a plasma jet 42 can facilitate the use of alarger sample chamber 12. In this example, the plasma jet 42 could bedeployed to “scan” (for example, a raster scanning motion) across alarge area surface of the sample 26 and introduce the plasma 34 todifferent areas of the sample 26.

In some cases, the plasma jet 42 can have turbulence associated with itsfunction. This turbulence can be used advantageously to aid in mixing ofthe sample 26.

The cooling device 44 can be a convective cooling device known to aperson having ordinary skill in the art. Example of suitable coolingdevices 44 include, but are not limited to, a liquid flow-throughcooling device, a Peltier cooler, and the like. The cooling device 44can be controlled by the control system 20. Although not illustrated, itshould be appreciated that the cooling device 44 could also be a heatingdevice or a cooling and heating device.

The sample chamber holder 46 can be configured to receive the samplechamber 12 and can thus have a size and shape that is relative to thesize and shape of the sample chamber 12. In some cases, the samplechamber holder 46 can have a recessed cavity configured to receive thesample chamber 12. In some cases, the sample chamber holder 46 can havea flat surface on which the sample chamber 12 rests. In certain cases,where the sample chamber 12 has a cylindrical shape, the sample chamberholder 46 can have a cylindrical cavity configured to receive the samplechamber. The sample chamber holder 46 can be made of a material that isthermally conductive, such as ceramic. The sample chamber holder 46 canbe electrically insulating.

The protective housing 48 can be hermetically sealed. The door 50 of theprotective housing 48 can have an automatic locking mechanism (notillustrated). The automatic locking mechanism can be in electroniccommunication with and controlled by the control system 20. Theautomatic locking mechanism can function by locking the door 50 when thesystem 10 is in use and unlocking the door 50 when the system 10 isinactive. The protective housing 48 can have an inlet 51 for receivinggas for the purpose of controlling the environment within the protectivehousing. The gas manifold 52 can be coupled to the inlet and can controlthe atmospheric composition within the protective housing 48. The gasmanifold 52 can be manually controlled or can be automaticallycontrolled, optionally by the control system 20. The protective housing48 can be transparent. The protective housing 48 can be made ofplexiglass.

The temperature sensor 54 can be positioned near the sample chamber 12,within the sample chamber 12, near the sample 26, and/or within thesample 26. Multiple temperature sensor 54 can be used. The temperaturesensor 54 can be a thermometer, a thermocouple, or any other deviceknown to those having ordinary skill in the art to be useful tomeasuring temperature in a gas and/or liquid. The temperature sensor 54can optionally be in communication with the control system 20. Thetemperature measured by the temperature sensor 54 can be utilized asfeedback to control the system 10 and specifically to control the plasma34 and/or the cooling device 44.

The power supply 18 can include and utilize a flyback transformer, thusproviding high voltage performance at a lowered cost.

The control system 20 can receive feedback regarding the number ofplasma pulses that have been introduced to the sample and can furthercontrol the system 10 based off that feedback.

In some cases, the sample 26 can have a layer of oil (not illustrated)atop the sample 26 in order to minimize evaporation and/or turbulence.

Compositions of Matter

This disclosure provides compositions of matter.

In one aspect, a composition of matter can comprise a biologicalmolecule in a liquid sample and a plasma within the sample. The liquidsample can include at least one marker radical precursor. The plasma canbe configured to convert the marker radical precursor into a markerradical.

In one aspect, a composition of matter can comprise a biologicalmolecule in a liquid sample that is contacted by a fluid and a plasmawithin the liquid sample and/or the fluid. The liquid sample and/or thefluid can include at least one marker radical precursor. The plasma canbe configured to convert the marker radical precursor into a markerradical.

In certain aspects of the aforementioned compositions of matter, thecomposition can include a plurality of marker radical precursors andsome portion of the precursors have been converted into marker radicals,so the composition includes the plasma, marker radical precursors, andmarker radicals.

In one aspect, a composition of matter can comprise a syntheticbiological molecule configured to have a predictable response toplasma-induced oxidation. The synthetic biological molecule can have apre-determined mass and/or a pre-determined sequence. The syntheticbiological molecule can be configured to be selectively oxidized apre-determined number of times, such as 1 time, 2 times, 3 times, and soon, up to n times. The synthetic biological molecule can be configuredto be selectively oxidized on a particular residue, such as a specificamino acid, or on multiple particular residues. The synthetic biologicalmolecule can be configured to be selectively oxidized by a particularradical marker.

The synthetic biological molecule can be configured to be selectivelyoxidized on a particular residue that is solvent accessible undercertain conditions and solvent inaccessible under other conditions. Forexample, the particular residue can be solvent accessible at a firsttemperature, pH, salinity, or other parameter, and solvent inaccessibleat a second temperature, pH, salinity, or other parameter.

In certain aspects, a composition of matter can comprise a mixture ofsynthetic biological molecules configured to have pre-determinedproperties, such as those set forth above with respect to the syntheticbiological molecules, and/or a predictable response to plasma-inducedoxidation.

In certain aspects, the compositions of matter can be utilized asstandards for benchmarking performance of the systems and methodsdescribed herein.

Kits

This disclosure provides kits.

In one aspect, a kit can include a reference sample and information thatallows the reference sample to be useful in identifying properties of abiological molecule in accordance with one or more of the methodsdescribed above. The reference sample can have a known response toplasma-induced oxidation. The information can include the knownresponse. For example, the information can be a known mass spectrum foran optimally plasma-induced oxidation of a reference sample can bestored on a memory.

Experimentalists will appreciate that protein samples can be precious.Accordingly, the kits of the present disclosure can allow a user to tunethe system to the appropriate settings, thereby only risking destructionof a less precious reference sample. For example, a reference samplehaving a known response to the methods described above and informationdescribing that known response can be used to optimize the operationalparameters of the system, then the optimized operational parameters canbe used with the sample of interest itself.

In one aspect, the kit can be used to determine if a system isappropriately configured.

The reference sample can include the features of the samples describedelsewhere herein, so long as the response to plasma-induced oxidation isknown to some degree.

The information can be in the form of a reference mass spectrum or acatalog of reference mass spectra.

EXAMPLE 1 Labeling Cytochrome C

A system as shown in FIG. 1 was used to generate radicals in a proteinsolution. The plasma was produced as follows. A low voltage a.c. sourcegenerated a variable frequency signal that was in the audio-frequencyrange. This signal was fed into a Trek amplifier (available commerciallyfrom Trek, Inc., Lockport, N.Y.) to produce a high-voltage signal at thesame frequency up to 30 kHz. The output of the Trek amplifier was thenfed to a nickel needle that was placed above the protein solution in aglass tube. The glass tube had a height of 0.75 inches and a diameter of0.5 inches. The tube was sealed to a thin sheet of glass (0.0625 inchesthick) that served as the dielectric barrier. A copper electrode wasplaced on the opposite side of the glass dielectric and was connected tothe other (grounded) side of the signal generator. The plasma was formedin microsecond bursts whenever the voltage between the needle and thecopper electrode exceeded a particular value that was dependent on thevoltage magnitude and the frequency of the signal generator. The plasmawas generated in the air above the protein solution and extended intothe liquid itself.

A photograph of the dielectric-barrier discharge that resulted is shownin FIG. 3. A plot of the voltage and current across the discharge isshown in FIG. 4, where the voltage is labeled U and the current islabeled I. The plot shows the times where the breakdown occurred and theplasma was generated. The voltage spiked up and current swung betweenpositive and negative values, with a pulse width of 3-4 μs.

A purified protein, cytochrome C, was used in the protein solution toillustrate the protein labeling capabilities of this method. CytochromeC is a model protein that has historically been benchmarked by othermethods, including the synchotron-based method described in thebackground section. To demonstrate the effectiveness of the method,cytochrome C in a lightly buffered salt solution at a concentration of50 μM was tested under the following conditions: no plasma exposure; 30seconds of plasma exposure; and 2 minutes of plasma exposure. Theexperiments were conducted twice, independently, and analyzed using twodifferent, complementary mass spectrometric techniques. The results havebeen condensed into FIG. 5, which illustrates that increasing plasmaexposure time increased modification on a specific region of cytochromeC. These experiments validated that the methods described above are bothdose-dependent and reproducible.

EXAMPLE 2 Labeling Bovine Serum Albumin

A system as shown in FIG. 1 was used to generate radicals in a proteinsolution with the same operational parameters described in Example 1.

A purified bovine serum albumin (BSA) in a lightly buffered saltsolution at a concentration of 10 μM was tested under the followingconditions: no plasma exposure; 30 seconds of plasma exposure; and 1minute of plasma exposure. Four different peptides within BSA weremodified by the method in a dose-dependent fashion.

Referring to FIG. 6, a plot shows the percent modification for the fourdifferent peptides under the three different conditions. In combinationwith Example 1, this Example illustrates the effectiveness of thesystems and methods at labeling proteins at different concentrations,labeling proteins that are different in size, and labeling proteins withdifferent physiochemical properties.

EXAMPLE 3 Breakdown of DNA in Size-Dependent and Exposure-Dose-DependentFashion

A purified lambda phage genomic DNA sample in water was utilized as asample with an experimental setup similar to the one shown in FIG. 1 andthe experimental parameters described in Example 1. The lambda phagegenome contains 48,500 base pairs and is linear. Samples were exposed tono plasma, 5 seconds, 10 seconds, 15 seconds, 30 seconds, 45 seconds,and 60 seconds of plasma. Referring to FIG. 7, an electrophoresis gelrun with the DNA samples after the plasma exposure is shown. The sampleswith no exposure, 5 seconds exposure, and 10 seconds exposure werelargely unmodified. The samples with 15 seconds, 30 seconds, 45 seconds,and 60 seconds exposure produced a smear in the gel. The smearrepresents many different DNA breakdown products, which resulted fromhydroxyl radicals cleaving DNA non-specifically, thus leading to pieceshaving a variety of different sizes. The shifting of the smear as theexposure time increases illustrates that the breakdown products decreasein size as exposure time increases.

A 7500 base pair plasmid (circular DNA) was exposed to the sameconditions for no exposure, 5 seconds exposure, 10 seconds exposure, 15seconds exposure, and 30 seconds exposure. Referring to FIG. 8, anelectrophoresis gel run with the DNA samples after the plasma exposureis shown. In this case, less overall exposure time was necessary tobegin breaking down this DNA compared with the lambda phage genomic DNA,although similar results overall were observed.

EXAMPLE 4 Protein Labeling in Intact/Live Cells

Live E. coli were exposed to the plasma conditions described inExample 1. The samples were exposed to no plasma, 1 minute of plasmaexposure, 3 minutes of plasma exposure, and 5 minutes of plasmaexposure. No significant decrease in E. coli viability was observed as aresult of the plasma exposure. All of the peptides for which sequenceinformation was derived post-mass spectral analysis were examined, and adose-dependent increase in the percentage of peptides that wereidentified which contain at least one oxidation event. The results aresummarized in FIG. 9.

Glycerol kinase, a single protein from E. coli, was isolated from theproteomic background for analysis. Referring to FIG. 10, a plot ofpercent modification versus position within the protein is shown. Theplot illustrates that modification selectively occurred in specificregions of the protein, in particular, the regions that are exposed tosolvent.

EXAMPLE 5 Conformational Sensitivity to Oxidation

The experimental parameters of Example 1 were reiterated on twosamples: 1) a solution containing intact cytochrome C; and 2) a solutioncontaining cytochrome C that was denatured by first proteolyzing down topeptides. Both solutions were exposed to the plasma for the same lengthof time. The labeling was more extensive for the denatured cytochrome Cwhen compared with the intact cytochrome C. This result providesevidence that conformational information can be derived from the systemsand methods disclosed herein.

EXAMPLE 6 Comparison of Native Versus Digested Bovine Serum Albumin

An undigest and digested bovine serum albumin sample in water wereutilized as samples in an experimental setup similar to the one shown inFIG. 1 and the experimental parameters described in Example 1. Referringto FIGS. 11 to 16, plots comparing the oxidation levels for undigested(top) and digested (bottom) bovine serum albumin are shown. FIGS. 11 and12 are scaled to 100%, FIGS. 13 and 14 are scaled to 10%, and FIGS. 15and 16 are scaled to 1.0%. While the plots that are scaled to 100%appear somewhat similar, the plots scaled to 10% and 1.0% show majordifferences between the undigested experiment and the digestedexperiment. Specifically, these data show evidence that the oxidation ofvarious residues is limited by reduced solvent interaction when theprotein has not been digested. On the other hand, digestion makes mostresidues solvent accessible and the resulting oxidation levels in thedigested experiment illustrates that more residues are accessible. Thisexample confirms that the methods described herein are useful forstudying solvent accessibility and a digested protein can be utilized asa benchmark for comparison with an undigested protein.

EXAMPLE 7 Studying Solvent Accessibility for Protein Bound and Unboundby a Ligand

An experimental setup similar to the one shown in FIG. 1 and theexperimental parameters described in Example 1 were used in thisExample. Referring to FIG. 17, the protein crystal structure ofepidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) protein is shown. Black residuesrepresent residues where oxidation is greater in EGFR unbound toepidermal growth factor (EGF) when compared with oxidation of EGFR thatis bound to EGF. Referring to FIG. 18, the protein crystal structure ofan EGFR protein activated homodimer is shown. In both cases, EGF is notillustrated. It should be appreciated that many of the residuesassociated with the measured reduced oxidation (i.e., reduced oxidationwhen bound to EGF) are positioned at the interface of the EGFRhomodimer, which implies that the areas of interaction in binding EGFand forming the activated homodimer (in addition to some residues thatare remote from these areas of interaction) have reduced oxidation as aresult of the structural modification of binding and dimerization.

Although the invention has been described in considerable detail withreference to certain aspects, one skilled in the art will appreciatethat the present invention can be practiced by other than the describedembodiments, which have been presented for purposes of illustration andnot of limitation. Therefore, the scope of the appended claims shouldnot be limited to the description of the embodiments contained herein.

We claim:
 1. A method of modifying a biological molecule located in asample, the sample contacted by a fluid or enclosed within a confinedspace, the sample or the fluid containing a plurality of marker radicalprecursors, the method comprising: a) generating a plasma in the fluidand/or generating the plasma within the sample, the plasma in the fluidhaving at least a portion of the plasma within 1 cm of the sample,thereby converting one or more of the plurality of marker radicalprecursors into one or more marker radicals; and b) waiting a length oftime sufficient for the one or more marker radicals to interact with thebiological molecule, thereby modifying the biological molecule.
 2. Themethod of claim 1, wherein the generating a plasma of step a) includesgenerating a sequence of plasma pulses.
 3. The method of claim 2,wherein the plasma pulses have a pulse width of between 1 ps and 1 ms.4. The method of claim 2 or 3, wherein the sequence of plasma pulseshave a frequency of between 1 Hz and 100 GHz.
 5. The method of any ofclaims 2 to 4, wherein the sequence of plasma pulses are generated for atotal length of time of between 1 ns and 1 hour.
 6. The method of any ofthe preceding claims, wherein the plasma of step a) is generated by aplasma jet.
 7. The method of any of the preceding claims, wherein theplasma of step a) is generated by a voltage in a range of 1 V and 1 MV.8. The method of any of the preceding claims, wherein the generating ofstep a) is configured to provide a peak concentration of marker radicalsin the sample in a range of between 50 nM and 800 μM.
 9. The method ofany of the preceding claims, wherein the generating of step a) elevatesa temperature of the sample by an amount less than 50° C.
 10. The methodof any of the preceding claims, wherein the generating of step a)transfers an amount of energy to the sample of less than 360 MJ.
 11. Themethod of any of the preceding claims, wherein the sample has a volumeof between 1 μL and 400 L.
 12. The method of any of the precedingclaims, wherein the fluid is a gas containing the plurality of markerradical precursors.
 13. The method of any of the preceding claims,wherein the plurality of marker radical precursors is a plurality ofwater molecules.
 14. The method of any of the preceding claims, whereinthe sample is selected from the group consisting of blood, blood plasma,urine, saliva, lymph, tears, sweat, cerebrospinal fluid, amniotic fluid,aqueous humour, vitreous humour, bile, breast milk, cerumen, chyle,chime, endolymph, perilymph, exudates, feces, female ejaculate, gastricacid, gastric juice, mucus, pericardial fluid, peritoneal fluid, pleuralfluid, pus, rheum, sebum, serious fluid, semen, smegma, sputum, synovialfluid, vaginal secretion, vomit, living bacterial cultures, livingtissue or eukaryotic cell cultures, and combinations thereof.
 15. Themethod of any of the preceding claims, wherein the sample is selectedfrom the group consisting of eukaryotic intracellular fluid, eukaryoticextracellular fluid, prokaryotic intracellular fluid, prokaryoticextracellular fluid, homogenized tissue or cells, homogenized tissue orcell culture, homogenized plant tissue, and combinations thereof. 16.The method of claim 15, wherein the extracellular fluid is selected fromthe group consisting of intravascular fluid, interstitial fluid,lymphatic fluid, transcellular fluid, plant apoplastic or vascularfluid, excess nutrient medium from prokaryotic or eukaryotic in vitrogrowth, and combinations thereof.
 17. The method of any of the precedingclaims, wherein the sample comprises the biological molecule and abuffer solution.
 18. The method of any of the preceding claims, whereinthe buffer solution comprises phosphate buffered saline,tris(hydroxymethyl)aminomethane (tris), tris hydrochloric acid, ammoniumbicarbonate, 4-(2-hydroxyethyl)-1-piperazineethanesulfonic acid (HEPES),3-(N-morpholino)propanesulfonic acid (MOPS),2-(N-morpholino)ethanesulfonic acid (MES),2,2-Bis(hydroxymethyl)-2,2′,2″-nitrilotriethanol (bis-tris),N-(2-Acetamido)iminodiacetic acid (ADA),piperazine-N,N′-bis(2-ethanesulfonic acid) (PIPES),N-(2-Acetamido)-2-aminoethanesulfonic acid (ACES),3-(N-morpholinyl)-2-hydroxypropanesulfonic acid sodium salt (MOPSO),1,3-bis(tris(hydroxymethyl)methylamino)propane (bis-tris propane),N,N-Bis(2-hydroxyethyl)-2-aminoethanesulfonic acid (BES),2-[[1,3-dihydroxy-2-(hydroxymethyl)propan-2-yl]amino]ethanesulfonic acid(TES), 3-(Bis(2-hydroxyethyl)amino)-2-hydroxypropane-1-sulfonic acid(DIPSO),34[1,3-dihydroxy-2-(hydroxymethyl)propan-2-yl]amino]-2-hydroxypropane-1-sulfonicacid (TAPSO), Trizma, piperazine-1,4-bis(2-hydroxypropanesulfonic acid)dihydrate (POPSO), 3-[[4-(2-Hydroxyethyl)-1-piperazinyl]propanesulfonicacid (HEPPS), N-(2-Hydroxy-1,1-bis(hydroxymethyl)ethyl)glycine(TRICINE), glycylglycine (GLY-GLY), 2-(Bis(2-hydroxyethyl)amino)aceticacid (BICINE), N-(2-hydroxyethyl)piperazine-N′-(4-butanesulfonic acid)(HEPBS),3-[[1,3-dihydroxy-2-(hydroxymethyl)propan-2-yl]amino]propane-1-sulfonicacid (TAPS), 2-amino-2-methyl-1,3-propanediol (AMPD),N-(1,1-Dimethyl-2-hydroxyethyl)-3-amino-2-hydroxypropanesulfonic acid(AMPSO), N-cyclohexyl-2-aminoethanesulfonic acid (CHES),N-cyclohexyl-2-hydroxyl-3-aminopropanesulfonic acid (CAPSO),1-amino-2-methyl-1-propanol (AMP), N-cyclohexyl-3-aminopropanesulfonicacid (CAPS), 4-(cyclohexylamino)-1-butanesulfonic acid (CABS), Lysogenybroth, a biologically or physiologically relevant salt, or a combinationthereof.
 19. The method of any of the preceding claims, wherein thebiological molecule is selected from the group consisting of a nucleicacid molecule, a protein, a lipid, a biological metabolite, andcombinations thereof.
 20. A method of modifying a plurality ofbiological molecules located in a plurality of samples, the plurality ofsamples contacted by a fluid or isolated in a plurality of confinedspaces, the plurality of samples or the fluid containing a plurality ofmarker radical precursors, the method comprising: a) generating a plasmaor a plurality of plasmas in the fluid, the plasma or the plurality ofplasmas in the fluid having at least a portion of the plasma or theplurality of plasmas within 1 cm of each of the plurality of samples, orgenerating a plurality of plasmas within the plurality of samples,thereby converting one or more of the plurality of marker radicalprecursors into one or more marker radicals; and b) waiting a length oftime sufficient for one or more of the plurality of marker radicals tointeract with the plurality of biological molecules, thereby modifyingthe plurality of biological molecules.
 21. The method of claim 20,wherein the plurality of samples comprise from 2 samples to 1,000,000samples, and the plurality of plasmas comprise from 2 plasmas to1,000,000 plasmas.
 22. The method of claim 20, wherein the plurality ofsamples comprise 96 samples and the plurality of plasmas comprise 96plasmas.
 23. A method of determining if a portion of a biologicalmolecule is accessible to a solvent, the biological molecule and thesolvent contained in a sample, the sample contacted by a fluid orenclosed within a confined space, the sample or the fluid containing amarker radical precursor, the method comprising: a) oxidizing, by way ofa plasma that introduces marker radicals to the sample, the biologicalmolecule; b) subsequent to step a), assessing whether the portion of thebiological molecule was oxidized by the oxidizing of step a), whereinthe presence of oxidizing indicates that the portion is accessible tothe solvent and the absence of oxidizing indicates that the portion isinaccessible to the solvent; and c) generating a report indicatingwhether the portion is accessible to the solvent or inaccessible to thesolvent.
 24. The method of claim 23, wherein the assessing of step b)comprises performing a mass spectrometry analysis of the biologicalmolecule.
 25. The method of claim 23, wherein the oxidizing of step a)includes the method according to any of claims 1 to
 22. 26. A method ofassessing a biological sample containing one or more biologicalmolecules having one or more solvent accessible portions and one or moresolvent inaccessible portions, the method comprising: a) acquiring afirst subsample and a second subsample of the biological sample, thefirst subsample and the second subsample containing substantiallyequivalent concentrations of the one or more biological molecules; b)introducing a cleavage factor into the second subsample of thebiological sample, the cleavage factor configured to alter the one ormore biological molecules to expose at least a portion of the solventinaccessible portions to solvent; c) oxidizing, by way of a plasma thatintroduces marker radicals to the first subsample and the secondsubsample, the one or more biological molecules in the first subsampleand the second subsample; d) subsequent to step c), assessing adifference in oxidization levels between the one or more biologicalmolecules in the first subsample and the second subsample, therebyidentifying at least a portion of the one or more solvent inaccessibleportions; and e) generating a report indicating the identification ofthe at least a portion of the one or more solvent inaccessible portions.27. The method of claim 26, wherein the assessing of step b) comprisesperforming a mass spectrometry analysis of the biological molecule. 28.The method of claim 26, wherein the oxidizing of step c) includes themethod according to any of claims 1 to
 22. 29. A system for modifying abiological molecule, the system comprising: a sample chamber configuredto contain a sample including a biological molecule, the sample chambercomprising a chemically and biologically inert inner surface; a groundelectrode; a dielectric separating the sample chamber from the groundelectrode; a plasma electrode comprising a plasma source point; a plasmaelectrode positioning system; a power supply; and a control system inelectronic communication with the power supply, the ground electrode,and the plasma electrode, the control system configured to utilizeelectrical power from the power supply with the plasma electrode and theground electrode to generate a plasma from the plasma source point, theplasma configured to generate marker radicals suitable for oxidizing thebiological molecule.
 30. The system of claim 29, the system furthercomprising a plurality of additional sample chambers, the plasmaelectrode further comprising a plurality of additional plasma sourcepoints.
 31. The system of claim 29, the system further comprising aplurality of additional sample chambers and a plurality of additionalplasma electrodes.
 32. The system of claim 29, wherein the plasmaelectrode has a dielectric coating that covers at least the plasmasource point.
 33. The system of any of claims 29 to 32, the systemfurther comprising an amplifier located between the power supply and theplasma electrode and configured to amplify the voltage at the plasmaelectrode.
 34. The system of any of claims 29 to 33, the system furthercomprising a protective housing encompassing at least the sample chamberand the plasma electrode.
 35. The system of claim 34, wherein theprotective housing is hermetically sealed.
 36. The system of claim 35,wherein the protective housing has an inlet coupled to a gas manifoldconfigured to control gas composition and pressure within the protectivehousing.
 37. The system of any of claims 34 to 36, wherein theprotective housing has a door configured to provide access to aninterior of the protective housing, the door having a lock in electroniccommunication with the control system, the control system configured tolock the lock during operation of the system.
 38. The system of any ofclaims 29 to 37, wherein the control system is configured to generatethe plasma with a time resolution of at least 100 ms.
 39. The system ofclaim 38, wherein the time resolution is at least 10 ms.
 40. The systemof claim 39, wherein the time resolution is at least 1 ms.
 41. A systemfor modifying a biological molecule, the system comprising: a samplechamber configured to contain a sample including a biological molecule,the sample chamber comprising a chemically and biologically inert innersurface; a plasma jet configured to generate a plasma and direct theplasma into the sample chamber; a plasma jet positioning system; a powersupply; and a control system in electronic communication with the powersupply and the plasma jet, the control system configured to utilizeelectrical power from the power supply with the plasma jet to generate aplasma and direct the plasma into the sample chamber, the plasmaconfigured to generate marker radicals suitable for oxidizing thebiological molecule.
 42. The system of claim 41, the system furthercomprising a plurality of additional sample chambers.
 43. The system ofclaim 41 or 42, wherein the sample chamber is positioned within aceramic holder that is thermally coupled to a convective cooling device.44. The system of claim 43, wherein the convective cooling device is aPeltier cooler.
 45. A composition of matter comprising: a biologicalmolecule and at least one marker radical precursor in a liquid sample;and a plasma within the liquid sample, the plasma configured to convertthe at least one marker radical precursor into a marker radical.
 46. Acomposition of matter comprising: a biological molecule in a liquidsample, the liquid sample contacted by a fluid, the liquid sample and/orthe fluid comprising at least one marker radical precursor; and a plasmawithin the liquid sample and/or the fluid, the plasma configured toconvert the at least one marker radical precursor into a marker radical.47. A composition of matter comprising: a synthetic biological moleculeconfigured to have a predictable response to plasma-induced oxidation.48. A kit comprising: a reference sample having a known response toplasma-induced oxidation; and information regarding the known response.